1～4
utilitarianism:The highest principle of morality is to maximize the general welfare, or the collective happiness.
—Fail to respect individual rights
—Not possible to aggregate all values and preferences and express it in a single uniform measure .
—The distinction between higher and lower pleasures, values
Mill’s improve:utilitarian calculus could be enlarged and modified to accommodate humanitarian concerns.
Libertarianism: individuals matter not just as instruments to be used for a larger social purpose or for the sake of maximizing utility. Individuals are separate beings with separate lives worthy of respect.
5
What’s the limit of government that even the consent of the majority cannot override?
Taxation has to be consented because it does involve the taking of people's property.But it does not require consent of each individual at the time the tax is enacted .In society we are bound by the majority .
arguments against the use of market in allocating military service
It may be unfair if there is severe inequality in the society . People who are paid into service are doing so not because they really want to but because they have so few economic opportunities that it's their best choice.What inequalities in the background conditions of society undermine the choice of people made to buy and sell their labor?Military service should not be treated as a job for pay because it's bound up with patriotism and civic obligation .What are the obligations of citizenship?What's the source of political obligation ?
Arguments against the extension of market in reproduction
Consent can’t truly free, if people are pressured or coerced to give their agreement or if their consent is not truly informed.Just how free would an exchange have to be with respect to the Bargaining powering and equal information?
There is something dehumanizing to make childbearing a market transaction?
Certain goods should not be treated open to use or for profit.Certain goods are properly valued in ways other than use?
Is utility the only proper way of treating goods, including life, military service , procreation, childbearing?What modes of valuation are fitting or are appropriate to those goods? Whether there are certain goods that money can’t buy because they are valued in a way higher than mere use.
6
The individual person has certain dignity that deserve our respect.We are all rational beings that have the capacity of reason. We are also autonomous beings capable of acting and choosing freely.
Of course, we seek to avoid pain and like pleasure.Kant deny that pain and pleasure are our sovereign masters.
It’s our rational capacity that makes us distinctive, that set us apart from above mere animal existence.It makes us something more than just physical creatures with appetites. We tend to think that freedom is to do what we want or in the absence of obstacles to getting what we want.
Heteronomy is the opposite of autonomy.
To act freely=To act autonomous=To act according to a law that I give myself, not according to the physical laws of nature, or the laws of cause and effect.
Heteronomy is to act according to desires and inclinations that I haven’t chosen for myself. To act freely is not to choose the best means to a given end; it’s to choose the end itself for its own sake. In so far as we act on inclination or pursue pleasure, We act as means to the realization of ends give outside of us. We are instruments rather than authors of purposes we pursue.
This capacity to act freely is what gives human life its special dignity. Respecting dignity means regarding human beings not just as means but also as ends in themselves. This is why it’s wrong to use people for the sake of other peoples’s well being or happiness.This is why we should respect human dignity and uphold their rights.
To act freely is not to choose a best way to a given end, it is to choose the end for its own sake.
What gives an action its moral worth?
What makes an action morally worthy consist not in the consequences or in the results that flow from it, but in the motive.
What’s the supreme principle of morality?
How is freedom possible?
Kant’s three contrasts:
Motives:duty vs inclination
Determination of will: autonomous vs heteronomous
Imperatives: categorical (without further purpose) vs
7
How can duty and autonomy go together ?
Because acting on duty is following a moral law that you imposed on yourself.
What’s to guarantee that my conscience is the same as your conscience?
Because moral law is not contingent upon seductive conditions.It will transcend all particular differences between people.If we choose freely out of conscience, the moral law guarantee that we come up the same.
We live a realm of necessity and a realm of freedom, so there’s always potentially a gap between what we do and what we ought to do.
独家蓝光
